Spoken Language Literacy Among the Deaf
WARNING
This topic is controversial. There are opposing views on the causes and solutions to literacy challenges among the deaf. It is important to approach it with sensitivity and respect. We aim to provide a balanced view of the topic, and we welcome feedback and contributions.
There is a persistent literacy gap among the deaf population, though it is potentially solvable through tailored education approaches. The underlying causes and solutions are debated, as a complex interplay of linguistic, educational, and systemic factors. This document does not intend to provide a full historical overview of literacy among the deaf, but rather to present a snapshot of the current state of the debate, to inform the reader.
Challenges and Causes
The literacy gap among deaf individuals is not due to inherent limitations but rather to language deprivation, inadequate instruction, and systemic exclusion. Addressing these root causes is essential to closing the literacy gap and ensuring deaf individuals have equal opportunities to succeed academically and professionally.
The development of literacy in English or other spoken/written languages has long been a contentious issue. Many deaf and hard-of-hearing (d/Deaf/hh) students do not achieve functional literacy upon graduating high school.[1]
The Canadian Association of the Deaf (CAD)[2] emphasizes that deafness itself is not the root cause of literacy challenges. The CAD asserts that literacy problems can be mitigated through systemic changes in communication accessibility and education frameworks.
Linguistic deprivation plays a significant role in literacy challenges.[3] Research demonstrates that without a strong foundation in a first language, cognitive development and literacy suffer. This leads to:
- Limited educational and career opportunities.
- Psychosocial harm from isolation and frustration.
- Impaired ability to express oneself or understand others.
Historical Context: Deaf Education and Literacy
Literacy outcomes for deaf individuals are deeply shaped by the history of deaf education. In the 18th and 19th centuries, educators such as l’Abbé de l’Épée[4] and Thomas Gallaudet[5] developed sign-supported teaching methods that enabled deaf students to achieve basic literacy. However, this progress was largely undone by the 1880 Milan Conference, where a majority of hearing educators voted to ban sign language in schools, promoting oralism—a method relying solely on speech and lip-reading[6]. This policy led to the systemic suppression of sign language and forced deaf children to conform through practices like tying their hands to prevent signing or punishing them for using sign language. As a result, generations of deaf children were denied accessible language during critical developmental years, severely harming their literacy, cognitive development, and sense of identity[7].
This shift deprived many deaf children of accessible language input during critical learning years, resulting in poor reading and writing outcomes. Throughout the 20th century, deafness was primarily framed as a medical condition, and educational systems often set minimal academic expectations for deaf students. Only in recent decades did sign languages regain recognition as full-fledged languages, prompting the rise of bilingual-bicultural education models. These approaches aim to treat deaf students as a linguistic minority with the right to learn through sign language[8].
Despite this paradigm shift, the long-standing legacy of linguistic deprivation and systemic neglect continues to impact literacy development in deaf populations today[9].
Global Literacy Outcomes
Across countries and income levels, deaf individuals consistently show lower literacy rates in the majority spoken and written language than their hearing peers. A 2009 survey in 93 countries conducted by the World Federation of the Deaf found that education quality for deaf learners was low and illiteracy rates were high[10]. These findings are echoed by decades of research in the United States, where about 50% of deaf high school graduates read below a fourth-grade level, and only 7–10% reach or exceed a seventh-grade level[9:1].
In low- and middle-income countries, literacy challenges are even more acute. Of an estimated 32 million deaf children worldwide, around 80% do not attend school, and only 1–2% are taught in sign language[11][12]. In many cases, deaf children are placed in classrooms where instruction is delivered in a language they cannot access, severely limiting their ability to develop reading or writing skills.
Root Causes of the Literacy Gap
1. Linguistic Deprivation in Early Childhood
Over 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents, most of whom are unfamiliar with sign language and may delay accessible language exposure. During early development, if a child cannot fully access spoken language and is not introduced to sign language, they experience linguistic deprivation—a critical barrier to literacy[13]. Without a solid first language, it becomes extremely difficult to learn to read or write any second language later on[14].
2. Late or Inadequate Language Exposure
Even when full deprivation is avoided, many deaf children only begin learning a complete language—spoken or signed—several years later than hearing peers. Some receive cochlear implants or speech therapy after age 2 or 3; others are exposed to sign language only at school entry. These delays miss the window of early brain plasticity essential for language acquisition and reading development.
3. Educational Methods and Language of Instruction
Historically, many schools used oral-only education, excluding sign language and focusing on speech and lip-reading. This often resulted in minimal language access and low literacy outcomes[15]. In contrast, bilingual education—teaching in both a national sign language and the written form of the majority language—has shown far better results. Deaf students, who are typically visual learners, benefit from instruction in a visual modality[16][17].
However, inconsistent implementation, lack of qualified sign-fluent teachers, and reliance on interpreters continue to hinder progress in many countries.
4. Systemic Barriers and Low Expectations
Stigma, underfunding, and low expectations continue to shape literacy outcomes. In some cases, families hide a child’s deafness, delaying intervention. Educational systems often offer limited support, and deaf individuals may face exclusion from advanced coursework. Public information is frequently not accessible (e.g., no captions or sign interpretation), limiting opportunities for incidental learning. As a result, deaf students often receive fewer inputs and lower-quality education, even in high-income countries[12:1].
5. Additional Contributing Factors
The lack of proficient deaf role models, accessible reading materials, and support for deaf students with additional disabilities further exacerbate literacy gaps. Moreover, learning to read a language like English or Mandarin—structured around sound—is inherently more complex for deaf learners. Without adapted instruction methods, such as sign-print mapping or visual phonics, literacy remains difficult to achieve.
Statistics
In some regions, illiteracy rates among the deaf exceed 75%[18], a statistic that reflects systemic inequities in education and access. While this figure is debated, it underscores the urgency for inclusive solutions.
General Literacy[1:1]
- A significant proportion of d/Deaf/hh students do not meet literacy standards comparable to their hearing peers.
- 40–50% of d/Deaf/hh children are estimated to have additional disabilities, further complicating literacy development.
Health Literacy[19]
Low literacy rates among the deaf also result in poorer health literacy. Key findings include:
- 76% of surveyed deaf adults were unaware of normal body temperature ranges.
- 41% could not understand simple medical prescriptions.
- Only 20% of deaf people are fluent in written English.
Communication barriers exacerbate these issues, particularly when health professionals rely on family members or interpreters, which can compromise privacy and autonomy.
Academic Studies and Employment[20]
In the United States, among people aged 25-64, an estimated 22% of deaf people have completed a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 37.7% of hearing people. Furthermore, an estimated 55.8% of deaf people are employed, compared to 72.9% of hearing people.
Marschark, Marc et al. 2011. The Education of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children. ↩︎ ↩︎
Canadian Association of the Deaf. 2024. Issues and Positions: Literacy. ↩︎
Hall, Wyatte C. et al. 2012. Linguistic Deprivation and Its Educational and Cognitive Implications. ↩︎
Wikipedia. Charles-Michel de l’Épée ↩︎
Wikipedia. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet ↩︎
Deaf History. 1880 Milan Conference ↩︎
Matern Child Health J. 2017.(https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5392137/) ↩︎
St. George’s University of London. 2017. Too many deaf children are still failing to learn to read ↩︎
National Library of Medicine. 2016. Academic performance of deaf students ↩︎ ↩︎
Gallaudet University. 2009. Sign Language Literacy Report ↩︎
Global Partnership for Education. Education and Disability ↩︎
Equal Rights Trust. Disability and Literacy ↩︎ ↩︎
National Association of the Deaf. Language Deprivation and Its Implications ↩︎
All Children Reading. Language Deprivation and Literacy ↩︎
National Library of Medicine. 2023. Deaf Literacy and Bilingual Education ↩︎
National Library of Medicine. 2013. Deaf Students as Visual Learners ↩︎
Fernández-Viader, Ma. Pilar et al. 2015. Deaf Literacy Rates: An International Perspective. ↩︎
Paasche-Orlow, Michael et al. 2005. Health Literacy Among Deaf Adults. ↩︎
National Deaf Center. 2022. Deaf Postsecondary Data from the American Community Survey ↩︎